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SCIENTIFIC THEORIES ON SEXUAL ABUSE
The following has been taken from Lee Ellis' Theories of Rape (1989).
Summary and Epilogue (pp 103 - pp 106)
This book has been devoted to reviewing scientific attempts to understand the causes of rape. The review was initially oriented around three theories of rape that have been proposed in the social science literature over the past 15 years. The feminist theory essentially sees rape as "a pseudosexual act" used by males to intimidate and dominate women. Support for it came from evidence that rape appeared related to sex cisparities in socioeconomic and political arenas, although the direction of the disparities seemed contrary to what most feminists theorists have hypothesized. Specifically, it appears that lessening the disparities is associated with increased rape risks. Additional value in the feminist theory of rape is reflected in its emphasis upon connections between male tendencies to rape and their tendencies to display aggression, although the theory is probably incorrect in its implication that aggression and domination are the actual goals of rapists.
The social learning theory postulates that rape is the result of male acquisition of attitudes and vicarious learning experiences (e.g., through the mass media) favorable to males behaving aggressively toward women. Consistent with this theory was evidence that attitudes favorable toward rape and outward the general use of violence toward women was associated with higher rape probability. Also supportive of the social learning theory was evidence that rapists were more prone to respond sexually to depictions of rape and aggression toward women than were other males.
According to evolutionary theory, rape is an extreme response to natural selection pressure which has favored male assertiveness in attempting to copulate with numerous sex partners, and has favored females who resist male attempts to control their sexual behavior. The theory was supposed by observations of forced copulations by males in many nonhuman species (suggesting the possibility of a genetic basis for male raping tendencies). Also favorable to the evolutionary theory was evidence that pregnancy risks, while probably lower than for voluntary sexual intercourse, are still significant (at least where birth control and abortion are not widely utilized by rape victims). In addition, the fact that the vast majority of rape victims throughout the world are of reproductive age is predicted by the evolutionary theory.
After reviewing the evidence both favoring and disfavoring hypotheses derived from the preceding three theories, a new theory was proposed - one based upon what was judged to be the main strengths of the other three theories. In addition, the new theory incorporated neurohormonal concepts so that it would be neurologically specific, a feature considered vital for the elegant theories of behavior.
In the briefest terms, the new theory argues that rape, like sexual behavior generally, is motivated by two largely unlearned and closely linked drives - the sex drive and the drive to possess and control (especially in regard to sex partners). While the motivation behind rape is assumed to be largely unlearned, the actual techniques and strategies involved in committing rape are believed to be learned (largely through operant conditioning, rather than through attitudes and imitation). From an evolutionary standpoint, the tendency to commit rape is seen as resulting from natural selection favoring a relatively strong sex drive and a drive to possess and control directed toward multiple sex partners. The natural selection pressure for these two drives was hypothesized to be more intense for males than for females, primarily because males can reproduce without committing time and energy to the gestation process, whereas females cannot escape this time and energy investment in reproduction.
The neurology underlying both the motivational and the learning processes surrounding rape are hypothesized to be intimately linked with the effects of sex hormones upon brain functioning (especially androgens and estradiol). Theoretically, to the degree that an individual's brain is exposed to high (male-typical) levels of androgens (especially prior to birth), the individual (a) should have an intense sex drive, and will orient his or her drive to possess and control toward multiple sex partners, and (b) should be relatively insensitive to aversive stimuli following the onset of puberty. However, because of a great deal of variability in male-typical levels of these sex hormones (both in terms of the levels of these hormones and the exact critical timing of their infiltration of various parts of the brain), males will exhibit considerable variability in regard to these neurological conditions (and females will also, to lesser degree). Overall, exposing the brain to certain still-to-be-specified male-typical sex hormone regiments is postulated to increase the probability of an individual being very forceful in attempting to copulate and not easily deterred by any aversive consequences of those attempts.
The theory contends that, following the onset of puberty, when sexuality is fully activated (by the same hormones that helped to sexually differentiate the brain prior to birth), many males (and a few females) cross a theoretical point called the forced copulation threshold. Those males (and females) who only slightly surpass the forced copulation threshold are largely responsible for acquaintance rapes, but could, under some circumstances (e.g., during wartime, when the prospects of punishment might be virtually nonexistent), commit predatory rape. Males who greatly surpass the forced copulation threshold should primarily be those who commit the vast majority of predatory rapes. Theoretically, their sex drives and/or drives to possess and control multiple sex partners should be unusually strong, and/or their sensitivities to aversive aspects of their environment (especially their social environment) should be low.
Somewhat more analytically, the synthesized theory can be stated in terms of the following four propositions:
- Motivational factors. Rape, like most other forms of sexual behavior, is the expression of two largely unlearned drives - the sex drive and the drive to possess and control sex partners.
- Learning factors. The techniques involved in committing rape are largely learned through operant conditioning and the main reinforcement for learning such techniques are the pleasures associated with copulation and foreplay, and with possessing and controlling sexual access to sex partners. The learning attitudes favorable to rape and tendencies to imitate rape depictions are hypothesized to play only secondary and indirect roles in rape etiology (and, even then, only in the case of individuals surpassing the forced copulation threshold).
- Evolutionary factors. Due to natural selection, males have evolved relatively strong sex drives, greater tendencies to orient their drives to possess and control toward multiple sex partners, and lowered sensitivities to the aversive features of their environments. Females, on the other hand, have evolved tendencies to resist copulating except with males who demonstrate an ability and a long-term willingness to provision for offspring and the females who bore them. Thus, individuals who are most likely to employ raping techniques are males who are least capable of making long-term provisioning commitments to sex partners and/or are least inclined to do so.
- Neurohormonal factors. Androgens and other sex hormones alter brain functioning in and around the hypothalamus in ways that facilitate the sex drive and orient the drive to possess and control away from offspring and toward sex partners. In addition, androgens alter brain functioning in an around the reticular formation in ways that lower an individual's sensitivity to the environment. Thus, exposing brains to relatively high androgen regimens (largely perinatally) eventually motivates individuals to copulate with multiple sex partners, and inclines them to be relatively insensitive to the suffering and distress inflicted upon others in the course of their learning and using forceful copulatory tactics.
While the merits of the synthesized theory remain to be determined, it should not be a complete surprise to find that it is better at "predicting" most of what is currently known about rape than its three predecessors since the synthesized theory was formulated after shortcomings of the other three had been systematically identified. As detailed in Chapter 7, however, there are many hypotheses that may be derived from the synthesized theory which should allow its strengths and weaknesses to eventually become apparent.
Among the topics that have been largely avoided throughout this book are those having to do with preventing rape and treating rape offenders and rape victims. The reason is that despite the progress that has been made in scientifically understanding rape in recent years, this understanding still is a long way from justifying a reliance upon any specific theory to guide the design of prevention and treatment programs. This, of course, will be a disappointment to those who deal who must deal with rape and its aftermath as immediate practical problems, but it is in the best interest of all concerned that scientific theories not be applied before their scientific merits have been well established in largely innocuous and inconsequential ways.
In closing, it is hoped that, at the very least, this book will stand as a tribute to the extraordinary commitment that large numbers of social scientists have made in recent years to understanding rape and its etiology. In addition to the sheer magnitude of the research, what seems to have made the work in this area particularly fruitful is that so much of the research has been "theory drive" rather than simply the result of random curiosity. Even when theories are found to be defective (as virtually all sooner or later are), they still are very helpful for channeling research in ways that facilitate the accumulation and assimilation of scientific knowledge.
Definitions
- Androgens
male sex hormone: a natural or artificial steroid that acts as a male sex hormone. Androgens are responsible for the development of male sex organs and secondary sexual characteristics. Testosterone and androsterone are androgens.
- Estradiol
hormone: an oestrogenic hormone produced in the ovaries and synthesized for use in treating oestrogen deficiency and breast cancer.
- Evolutionary theory
theory of development from earlier forms: the theoretical process by which all species develop from earlier forms of life. On this theory, natural variation in the genetic material of a population favors reproduction by some individuals more than others, so that over the generations all members of the population come to possess the favorable traits.
- Hypothalamus
a central area on the underside of the brain, controlling involuntary functions such as body temperature and the release of hormones
- Neurology
study of nervous system: the branch of medicine that deals with the structure and function of the nervous system and the treatment of the diseases and disorders that affect it
- Natural selection
process of adapting to environment: the process, according to Darwin, by which organisms best suited to survival in a particular environment achieve greater reproductive success, thereby passing advantageous genetic characteristics on to future generations.
- Operant conditioning
learning through positive and negative reinforcement: a form of learning that takes place when an instance of spontaneous behavior is either reinforced by a reward or discouraged by punishment. The principles involved have had a strong influence on behavior modification as well as on other kinds of therapy.
- Pseudo
not genuine: not authentic or sincere, in spite of appearances
- Predatory (rape)
relating to or characteristic of animals that survive by preying on others ( and raping them)
- Reticular formation
a formation of neurons in the brainstem that regulates many body functions, including respiration, blood pressure, sleeping and waking, and transmission of stimuli
Questions to Chew on:
- Can the feminist theory explain why a significant amount of men are raped by men and women; and women raping each other?
- If, according to the evolutionary theory, men rape women to increase their chances of reproducing children, why do some men rape other men? Or children that cannot reproduce? What about sexual molestation that does not involve penetration?
- With regards to social learning theory, people can also be resistant and therefore not mimic what they see around them - what makes these people different from those who do mimic sexual acts (of violence)?
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